Federalists and Anti Federalists Essay Example

Federalists and Anti Federalists Paper Soon after the end of the Revolutionary War if not before it became clear that the Articles of Confederation were not a workable arrangement.Wartime contingency measures might have papered over the most immediate problems, but with the coming of peace something more regular was needed.The defects of the Articles produced a host of disputes among states, which could not be resolved under its terms, and which times were serious enough to lead to militia skirmishing. More broadly, a fundamental issue had been left unresolved:Was the United States a nation in its own right, or a mere confederation of semi- autonomous statesThis was not just an abstract question a great many group and individual interests were wrapped up in it.By and large, commercial interests were interested in a strong national government, creating an internal free-trade zone and consistent legal rules concerning trade.Other wealthy interests, however, had mainly local influence large landowners, for example, who i n this era might still expect a quasi- feudal deference from tenants and neighbors.Their local standing would be diminished in a more unified national political structure.However, even these interests conceded that the original Articles were unworkable, while on the other hand many proponents of a stronger central government still had anxieties that it might become authoritarian, in 18th century language The Constitutional Convention was initially convened merely to patch up the Articles of Confederation, but it was dominated by proponents of stronger central government.Instead of modifying the Articles it threw them out entirely.Both Federalists and Anti-Federalists thereupon engaged in a propaganda battle.The Federalists won this in a mismatch: the Federalist has gone down as a political classic, while the Anti-Federalist writings have all but vanished f Federalists and Anti Federalists Essay Example Federalists and Anti Federalists Paper Soon after the end of the Revolutionary War if not before it became clear that the Articles of Confederation were not a workable arrangement.Wartime contingency measures might have papered over the most immediate problems, but with the coming of peace something more regular was needed.The defects of the Articles produced a host of disputes among states, which could not be resolved under its terms, and which times were serious enough to lead to militia skirmishing. More broadly, a fundamental issue had been left unresolved:Was the United States a nation in its own right, or a mere confederation of semi- autonomous statesThis was not just an abstract question a great many group and individual interests were wrapped up in it.By and large, commercial interests were interested in a strong national government, creating an internal free-trade zone and consistent legal rules concerning trade.Other wealthy interests, however, had mainly local influence large landowners, for example, who i n this era might still expect a quasi- feudal deference from tenants and neighbors.Their local standing would be diminished in a more unified national political structure.However, even these interests conceded that the original Articles were unworkable, while on the other hand many proponents of a stronger central government still had anxieties that it might become authoritarian, in 18th century language The Constitutional Convention was initially convened merely to patch up the Articles of Confederation, but it was dominated by proponents of stronger central government.Instead of modifying the Articles it threw them out entirely.Both Federalists and Anti-Federalists thereupon engaged in a propaganda battle.The Federalists won this in a mismatch: the Federalist has gone down as a political classic, while the Anti-Federalist writings have all but vanished f

Discipleship in Matthew Essays

Discipleship in Matthew Essays Discipleship in Matthew Essay Discipleship in Matthew Essay Global discipleship making disciples for the sake of the nations A study of the Gospel according to Matthew Introduction Matthew’s handbook for the church Why did Matthew write his gospel? John clearly had an evangelistic aim (Jn 20:31), but Matthew wrote his gospel for the church, for those who already follow Jesus. It is a teaching gospel, which arranges its material into subjects, summarising the teaching of Jesus and illustrating it with examples from his life. Matthew’s is the only gospel that mentions the church (16:18; 18:17). In short, Matthew wrote the first discipleship training course! Matthew divides his material into 5 sections, each of which contains a number of stories from the life of Jesus, and concludes with a chapter (or two or three) of extended teaching by Jesus to his disciples, before finishing with the passion narrative of the death and resurrection of Jesus. This fivefold division was no accident, for Matthew was a Jewish Christian (and former tax-collector), and all Jewish writings of his time followed this pattern (based on the 5 books of Torah Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers and Deuteronomy). Why did Matthew write this gospel for the church? He probably wrote it at a time when church and synagogue were growing apart, when the distinction between Jew and Christian was becoming more obvious. At first, most if not all followers of Jesus were Jewish. But over time, as more and more Gentiles found new life in Jesus, an ‘either/or’ situation developed. Matthew’s church was probably made up of Jewish Christians, facing increasing pressure over their (apparently) divided loyalties. And he wanted to show them that Jesus was indeed the long-awaited Messiah, fulfilment of the Hebrew Scriptures, and that they were not being unfaithful to their roots by being Christians. So how is this relevant to us? Matthew’s church has been described as â€Å"a community cut off from its roots divided in itself as to what its priorities should be, groping for direction in the face of previously-unknown problems† (David Bosch, ‘Transforming Mission’, p58). Does this sound familiar, such as our own context today? And Matthew’s response? â€Å"His concern is not simply to help his people cope with the new pressures they confront, but to assist them in developing a missionary ethos that will match the challenges of a new epoch† (Bosch, ibid). Matthew’s aim is therefore both pastoral and missionary – pastoral, in wishing to convey selfconfidence to a community of Christians facing a crisis of identity; and missionary, in seeking to embolden them toward seeing opportunities for witness and service around them. So this is very relevant to us. Matthew has written a gospel for the church, for those who follow Jesus, to encourage and motivate them, to give them confidence about who they are, and to direct them outwards, to share the good news with others. Matthew’s understanding of mission making disciples The theme of discipleship is central to Matthew’s gospel, and the term ‘disciple’ is used far more often by him than by Mark or Luke (Mt 73, Mk 46, Lk 37 times). But while in Mark and Luke, ‘disciple’ is the term reserved only for the Twelve, in Matthew it is used more widely, of any follower of Jesus. The Twelve are the prototypes for all disciples, who are to copy them, doing the things they did. And as well as being linked to the first band of disciples, any contemporary disciples are also linked to each other. No disciple can follow Jesus alone, but is irrevocably linked to the fellowship of disciples, the ekklesia, the church (which, as above, is why Matthew mentions it). There is a strong emphasis in Matthew’s gospel on doing God’s will, keeping his commands, and the challenge to be perfect, to surpass or excel, to observe or keep, to teach, and to bear fruit. Consider for example the concern for doing God’s will. In the Lord’s Prayer, we are to pray that His will be done (6:10); only those who do the will of the Father will be saved (7:21-23); in the parable of the two sons, it is the one who did his father’s will who is commended, not the one who said he would (21:28-31). For Matthew, actions are the test of the authenticity of words. It is not what we say, but what we do, that matters. Orthodoxy is not as important as orthopraxis right action surpasses right belief. Discipleship is about doing, about service. Another concern for Matthew is that any disciple of Jesus should give evidence of dikaiosyne, that is, justice-righteousness. It is a difficult word to translate into English, since it carries the connotations of both these words. ‘Righteousness’ refers to a right relationship with God; ‘justice’ refers to a right relationship with our fellow human-beings. It is neither only spiritual, nor only pragmatic. A right relationship with God protects us from legalism, and a right relationship with others protects us from empty words (both mortal sins in Matthew’s eyes). Discipleship includes a concern for both justice and righteousness. Who is to be discipled? This is the most Jewish of the gospels, full of direct Old Testament quotations and allusions. On two occasions, Jesus appears to restrict the work of himself and his disciples only to Israel (10:5-6; 15:24). And yet Matthew still manages to conclude his gospel with one of his most famous passages, the ‘Great Commission’, sending his disciples to make more disciples, of all the nations (28:18-20). Is this a bit of a surprise to the disciples, an afterthought by the soon-departing Jesus? As if he were saying, â€Å"Oh, by the way, here’s something I should have mentioned earlier, but I forgot. If you feel like it, and are not too busy, could you disciple a few nations for me? †. But the ‘nations’ (Gentiles, ethne) are in fact never far from sight throughout Matthew’s gospel. They are included in Jesus’ genealogy (1:5); they are the first to worship the new-born Christ (magi 2:1-11); Jesus lived in Galilee ‘of the Gentiles’ (4:15); news of his activities ‘spread all over Syria’ (4:24); the ‘plentiful harvest’ of 9:37 alludes to a wider perspective; the quotation of Isa 42:1-4 in 12:18-21 mentions ‘the nations’ twice; in the parable of the wheat and the tares, the field is ‘the world’ (13:38); Jesus was willing to enter non-Jewish homes (8:7); Jesus commends the faith of Gentiles, including the Canaanite woman whom he apparently initially rejects (8:10; 15:28); he explicitly promises that many from ‘the nations’ will participate in the messianic feast (8:11), and that finally the gospel will be preached in the whole world, as a testimony to ‘all nations’ (24:14). Thus, for Matthew, the mission of the church is to make disciples, followers of Jesus, who will do the Father’s will, from every nation. Discipleship is self-reproducing. Disciples will make disciples, who will in turn do the same, into every nation on earth. The ‘Great Commission’ Matthew’s summary of what disciple-making means When they saw him, they worshipped him; but some doubted. Then Jesus came to them and said, â€Å"All authority in heaven and on earth has been given to me. Therefore go and makes disciples of all nations, baptising them in the names of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit, and teaching them to obey everything I have commanded you. And surely I am with you always, to the very end of the age† (Matt 28:17-29). These are some of the most used (and abused? ) verses in recent Christian history. Often taken out of context, and used to support missionary appeals of all kinds, this ignores the context we have outlined so far. They are not, as I suggested above, an afterthought, but rather the climax, a culmination of everything said up to this point, a summary of Matthew’s entire gospel, written so that we might â€Å"make disciples of all nations†. For Matthew, discipleship is the mission of the church, with all the nations in view. The content of this disciplemaking is teaching and baptising. The ‘going’ is not an imperative in Greek but a present participle thus it is not a command, but an assumption. The overall aim of the church, and therefore of all discipleship, is the winning of all nations to the status of true followers of Jesus. So how does Matthew suggest this is to be done? Mark uses ‘proclaim’ (kerysso) and ‘teach’ (didasko) interchangeably. Matthew never does. Jesus never ‘preaches’ to his disciples. He teaches them. In the first commissioning, the disciples are sent to ‘preach’ (10:7), a ‘proper’ missionary activity. But in the Great Commission, this is not so. The disciples are sent to ‘teach’, an activity reserved for the benefit of disciples, those who already follow Jesus. To understand this, we need to remember that, for Matthew, teaching is no mere intellectual enterprise. Jesus’ teaching appeals not to the mind, but to the will. It is a call for a concrete decision to follow him, and to submit to God’s will (as revealed in the life and ministry of Jesus). Proper actions, not words, are what count. This is what it will mean to disciple the nations. It is not enough simply to proclaim that ‘Jesus is Lord’ people from every nation are to be turned into mature, active followers of him. Jesus has universal authority. Why then make disciples? Because this fact has to be proclaimed to all. If Jesus really is Lord, it simply has to be proclaimed. No-one who knows can keep silent about it. They can only do one thing help others to acknowledge Jesus’ lordship. Only Jesus’ authority inaugurates and makes possible a worldwide mission. The universal, unlimited dominion of the risen Jesus evokes an equally universal, limitless response from his followers. Jesus promises to be with the disciples always, to the end of the age (Matt 28:20), is rooted in the first title given to him Immanuel, God with us (1:23). This presence is permanent, FACT, based on nothing more spectacular than a simple promise. No fireworks, no Pentecost. This presence and empowering is not simply for our own comfort, but is intimately connected with mission. It is only as it makes disciples that the church knows the presence of Jesus. The disciples are clearly modelled on Jesus, to do the things that he did (â€Å"teaching them to obey everything I have commanded you†; cf 10:24-25). But the disciples are not expected to be perfect. They are referred to as being ‘of little faith’, ‘afraid’, or ‘full of doubt’. Even in Matt 28:17, all worship, but some doubt. This communicates that mission never takes place in self-confidence, but in the knowledge of our own weakness, at the point of crisis where danger and opportunity come together. Like the first disciples, we stand in the place of tension between worship and doubt, faith and fear. Mission is â€Å"not a fringe activity of a strongly-established church, a pious cause which may be attended to once the home fires are first brightly burning† (David Bosch) . it is not one of the things the church does. It is the framework for all that the church does and is. It is the reason, the goal, the end of discipleship.  © Richard Tiplady December 1996

Culture Knowledge and Environment Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3500 words

Culture Knowledge and Environment - Case Study Example To enhance the view, he cut down some trees. With this sense came a number of thoughts that were peculiar (Schumaker, 2011). This case study will shed light on incidences where colonial science misunderstood the environment of the relevant colony as well as highlight the reasons as to why such misunderstandings took place and persisted. This study draws attention on the interplay of influences in incidents regarding colonial science misunderstandings by examining anthropology from the perspective of the history of the field sciences in conjunction with those sciences that use fieldwork in addition to or instead of laboratory work. Light shed on this subject by online sources depict that, this case study attends the field of colonial science itself, the material side of fieldwork, equipment, infrastructure, and work organization suitable for conducting scientific work in a particular field site. Additionally, it allows one to correlate scientific practice and non scientific practices taking place in the same field site that include the sharing of practices between colonial administrators and anthropologists considered in this study. Documented evidence puts across that, field science approaches ideally examine the relationship between the material culture and the technology brought about by science (Sagasti, 2004). Cognitively, the history of colonial science in Africa suffered from very sharp dichotomy between the indigenous and the external factors whereby Africans viewed science as a European import more or less transferred successfully into a hostile environment. The field of science perspective brings to the history of colonial science in Africa the ability to ground that science in its African context and therefore understanding colonial science from an African perspective, an anthropologist had to live there for a length of time. While in their stay, these anthropologists observed some stern ideologies between the relevant society and the colonial science (Chakrabarti, 2004). Scientific research, as a central tenet of its professional ethos, the colonial science misunderstood the environment of the relevant colony due to sharp difference in mode of communication. Most colonial scientists did not understand the language used by the Africans and vice versa was true. Learning the common mode of communication in the relevant society was the key to professional ethos of colonial science. This meant that, one had to collect data, observe the daily activities of the indigenous people of that society, and finally resolve to obtain a clear view of the local inhabitants. Theories brought about by some anthropologists explaining instances where the colonial science misunderstood the surroundings of the relevant colony put across that, Africans regarded colonial science as an import from the west and had no good intentions for their cultural behavior and their social activities (Bloom, 2008). The colonial science wanted to colonize the Africans without learning the relevant means to deploy in order for them to get along with the presence of colonial science. Furthermore, a cognitive misunderstanding between colonial science and the relevant colony occurred in India. Let us first bear this in mind; before colonial science came into being, people understood science as a social activity, not an esoteric. Science ideas are not simple products of logic of experimental methods rather they stem

Children's Development, Health and Well-being Essay

Children's Development, Health and Well-being - Essay Example This paper will now discuss the different ways by which children develop in their early years and primary settings, with specific focus on their health and wellbeing. First, a discussion on the developmental needs and conditions of children in their primary school years would be presented, followed by a discussion on the theories and key educational initiatives and how these impact on children’s development. Legislation pertinent to the topic will then be discussed, including the key elements which impact on children’s development, health and well-being. Legislation relevant to schools and children will also be made part of this discussion as a means of understanding the connections between policy and classroom practice. Body During the primary years, learners are highly energetic and highly engaged in physical activity. They are also entering a period of experimentation with various possible identities (Fabian and Dunlop, 2002). They explore themselves and their relati onship and similarities to their peers, including the differences between the male and female gender. They are also able to participate enthusiastically in various activities, as well as to expand their mental development in ways which may be considered reflective (Fabian and Dunlop, 2002). These learners have needs which relate to the application of complicated, dynamic, interactive and cyclical activities. The learning process for these children would have to call for them to elaborate, reformulate, and reflect upon their knowledge and values (Fabian and Dunlop, 2002). In other words, they have to be supported on how their develop responsibility for their learning. The years following conception until birth to the first eight years of the child’s life are crucial to their complete and healthy mental, emotional, and physical growth (Robinson, 2007). Their brain’s rapid development often starts as early as the prenatal stage and continues until after the child’s birth. The cell formation of the child is often already complete before their birth with a newborn infant having about 100 billion brain cells (Robinson, 2007). Their brain maturation as well as the development of their neural pathways is however continued after birth until their early childhood. In effect, early childhood is a time where the environment also has a crucial role to play in determining the eventual direction of the child’s development. The environment impacts on the number of brain cells and connections made, but also how these connections would be wired (Waller, 2009). The goal of removing excess neurons and synapses from the immature brain is a process which goes on until the child’s adolescence, but is especially dramatic during the child’s early years (Waller, 2009). This process is also guided to a significant extent by how the child is experiencing the outside world. According to different studies, if the brain does not gain enough stimulat ion during this critical period, it would be very difficult for the brain to later rewire itself at a later time (MacIntyre, 2007). Poor nutrition before birth and in the first years of the child’s life can also seriously impact on brain development and cause neurological and behavioural issues including learning disabilities and mental retardation (MacIntyre, 2007).

4 essay questions Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

4 questions - Essay Example Labor force globally is aging. In Canada, the average age of labor force was 32 in 1972, which has arisen to 39 in 2000 (Career Sense). The age pattern of the population affects the education level, which in return directly affects the labor market. With baby-boomers due to retire soon, there will be a dramatic shift in the work force. Richard Freeman of the National Bureau of Economic Research, Washington states that changes in the global job market for science and engineering workers will diminish the comparative advantage of the United States in high-tech production (AllBusiness, 2005). Gender too plays a contributory role. About two-thirds of the total labour force growth resulted from increased participation from women. Women prefer part-time jobs and they contribute to increase in absenteeism depending on individual family culture. Immigration is another critical area due to which the culture and education level of the labor makes the role of human resource management challenging. IBM’s diversity strategy includes creating a work/life balance, advancement of women and integration of people with disability (Nicolson, 2006). Organizations today recognize the need to attract the right brains to thrive in the competitive market and retain the employees as work force is ageing and skilled force is in short supply. Changing composition in the global work force brings a shift in the human resource management. Canada used to have highly skilled migrants mainly from European countries but now has to rely heavily on those who do not possess language proficiency or the technical skills. Science and American graduates in America is gradually dropping, which signals a warning to the sourcing of work force. One of the key roles of the human resource management is to find new ways to motivate and reward the employees. Employee productivity and organization performance is directly linked with the compensation schemes that an

The Role of External Auditor in Corporate Governance

The Role of External Auditor in Corporate Governance External Auditors check companys accounts and report to the company based on the accounts. Basically, the concern is how external auditors conduct these duties effectively. Legislations, such as The Companies Act 1965, have made great efforts to ensure external auditors conduct their duties and obligations effectively. The Code of Corporate Governance in 2001 and the amendment in 2007 have further enhanced the effectiveness of audit in the interests of stockholders and shareholders. In light of the recent scandals involving external auditors in the world, there is a growing concern for corporate governance globally as there is increased reliance by the stockholders and shareholders on external auditors. This study examines the role of external auditors in the corporate governance framework. The study then reviews the financial scandals involving auditors occurred in the world and investigate the role of external auditor in the collapse of the companies. Introduction Corporate governance is a central and dynamic aspect of business. It is very important for corporate success and social welfare. In the wake of Enron, HIH Insurance and other similar cases, countries around the world have reacted quickly by pre-examining similar events domestically. As a speedy response to these corporate failures, the USA issued the Sarbanes-Oxly Act in July 2002, and in UK, the Higgs Report and the Smith Report were published in January 2003 (Solomon, 2007). Nowadays corporate governance is a globally debated topic with many characteristics (Nobel, 1998). However, the concern is whether auditors play an important role in the framework of corporate governance. Corporate Governance Corporate governance is the relationship among various participants in determining the direction and performance of corporations. The main participants are the shareholders, the management and the board of directors. Corporate governance is the process whereby directors of a company are monitored and controlled. There are two areas considered to be fundamental to corporate governance, one is supervision and monitoring of management performance and the other is ensuring accountability of management to shareholders and other stakeholders (Marianne, 2009). Till now, probably the two most important basic elements of good corporate governance have been full disclosure and the presence of independent directors and auditors, who each has their own ways to confirm that the data provided by the corporation are true and fairly stated. The contents of full disclosure are listed out in regulatory demands and professional pronouncements, and companies are expected to fully comply. The independence of the outside director and external auditor means the directors and auditors will have to distance themselves considerably to assure shareholders that they have conducted their tasks (Bavly, 2004). Role of External Auditors in Corporate Governance External auditors play a key role in the corporate governance framework. They conduct one of the most important corporate governance checks that help to monitor managements activities. The audit of financial statement makes disclosures more reliable, thus increasing confidence in the companys transparency. The role of external auditors is to make sure that Board of Directors and the management are acting responsibly towards the shareholders investment interests. By keeping objectivity, the external auditors can add value to shareholders by ensuring that the companys internal controls are strong and effective. And by working with the audit committee and liaising with internal auditors, external auditors can help to facilitate a more effective oversight of the financial reporting process by the Board of Directors (Hassan, 2004). However, the audit expectations gap needs to be acknowledged, as the audit function can only do so much on the fraud. The external auditor can not be expected to find every fraud and error during an audit. In accordance with the Cadbury Report, it is important to know that the external auditors role is not to prepare the financial statements, nor to provide assurance that the data in the financial statements are correct, nor to guarantee that the company will continue as a going concern, but the external auditors have to state in the annual report that the financial statements show a true and fair view. The Cadbury Report highlighted that there was no doubt on whether there should be an audit but rather how the audit could be ensured to conduct effectively and objectively by the external auditors (Solomon, 2007). Auditor Independence External auditors are expected to be independent of the company and report on the company objectively. Actually, auditors can only play their role effectively if they are independent (Peel ODonnell, 1995). They have to conduct their tasks in the most independent and reliable manner to provide investing public with the level of assurance to make their decisions based on the financial statements. According to the Cadbury Report, auditor independence could be affected due to the close relationship between auditors and company managers and due to the auditors intention to develop a constructive relationship with their clients. There are a number of threats to auditor independence, one of which is to provide non-audit services since non-audit services are lucrative. Auditors can obtain the contracts for non-audit services only if they maintain a good relationship with the management. The Cadbury Report stressed that a balance is needed to be achieved in such way that external auditors will work with, not against, company management, but in doing so they need to serve shareholders. This is a difficult path. The easiest way to ensure this balance being attained is suggested to establish audit committees and develop effective accounting standards. The Cadbury Report recommended all companies to establish audit committees. Audit committees serve as representative of shareholder interests. They are not only responsible for monitoring financial reporting process to support good corporate governance, they are also considered to be able to ensure an appropriate relationship exists between the external auditor and the management whose financial statements are being audited (Hassan, 2004). The Smith Report issued in 2003 highlighted that the audit committee needs to be proactive and raise the concern with directors rather than brush them under the carpet. The Report also stressed that all members of audit committee should be independent non-executive directors. Companys annual reports should disclose detailed information on the role and responsibilities of their audit committee. Lessons from Financial Scandals 4.1 Collapse of Enron Enron, the energy trading company based on Texas is the first scandal shaking up the auditing profession. It has led to a crisis to the confidence on auditors and the reliability of financial reporting (Holm Laursen, 2007). The audit quality and the independence of external auditors were questioned. In this case, Enrons audit and accounting function were fraudulent. Arthur Andersen, the auditor of Enron, has been involved in Enrons fraudulent accounting and auditing. Failure of the audit function is one of the key factors contributing to the companys collapse. Enron created The Raptors, four special purpose entities (SPEs). SPEs are established in order that a company can form a joint venture with other interested parties to conduct a specific transaction. This transaction will not subject the other parties to the risks more generally associated with the companys operations. U.S Generally Accepted Accounting Principles (GAPP) allows companies to record the gains and losses of SPEs without reporting their assets and liabilities in certain instances. In this way, Enron avoided adding more than $1 billion debt to its balance sheet without consolidating certain SPEs (Jenkins, 2003). But the problems are, when the losses of these entities quickly rose into billions of dollars, these entities were brought into the core financial statements. It then became clear that Enron itself had great losses. The corporations stock price dropped sharply, and the company went into bankruptcy in December 2001 (Brown, 2005). Examples of Enrons devious accounting exist widely in the corporation. The company recorded profits, for example, from a joint venture with Blockbuster Video that was never materialized (The Economist, 7 February 2002). In 2002, Enron restated its accounts, which is actually a process that reduced reported profits by $600 million (The Economist, 6 December 2001). In fact, the process resulted in a cumulative profit decrease of $591 million and a rise in debt of $628 million for the financial statements from 1997 to 2000. The difference between the profit figures was mainly attributed to the earlier omission of three off-balance sheet entities. Such profit inflation enabled the company to raise its earnings per share (EPS). The company not only manipulated the accounting figures to inflate the earnings, but it also was found to remove substantial amounts of debt from its accounts by setting up a number of off-balance sheet entities. Such special purpose entities can be used to hide a companys liabilities from the balance sheet, in order to make the financial statements look much better than they really are (The Economist, 2 May 2002). It means substantial number of liabilities did not have to be disclosed on Enrons financial statements, because they were mainly attributed to another legal entity. All these issues raise the question, why did Enrons auditor allow this type of activity? This is because the conflicts of interest exist between the external auditor and the management. Conflicts of Interest Conflicts of interest are a frequent problem in the audit profession. Although independent appointment of external auditors by companys shareholders is regularly replaced by subjective appointment by the company management, the auditor is all too often appreciated to the companys senior management. Further, conflicts of interest arise from interactive functions of audit and consultancy. Arthur Andersen has been blamed to apply loose standards in their audits because of conflict of interest over the subatantial consulting fees collected from Enron. In 2000, Andersen collected $25 million for auditing Enrons books in addition to $27 million for consulting services. In 2001, Arthur Anderson earned US$55 million for provision of non-audit services (Brown, 2005). Although Arthur Andersen reported on the companys accounts, they did not report fraud to the shareholders. This is because the fraud was committed by the management. Kenneth Lay, the Chief Executive Officer (CEO) from Feb 1986 until Feb 2001, took home US$ 152 million although the company was facing a loss. If Andersen were to report, they probably will not be appointed in the following years or be engaged in non-audit services (Krishnan, L, 2009). Especially, close relationships are established over time between companies and their external auditors. It can again affect independent judgment and impact on the auditing function. In this case, there are regular exchanges of employees within Enron from Arthur Anderson. Such conflicts of interest affect the corporate governance function. Serious conflicts of interest have also arisen among members of Enrons internal audit committee, which causes the internal audit committee did not perform its functions of internal control and of checking the external auditing function. For example, Lord Wakeham, a member of the audit committee, was at the same time having a consulting contract with Enron (The Economist, 7February2002). This shows that people in responsible positions should have detected fraudulent activities if they were independent. Enrons board of directors was composed of a number of members who have been shown to be willing to conduct fraudulent activity. It is also because the non-executive directors were compromised by conflicts of interest. 4.2 Collapse of HIH Insurance In Australia, the collapse of HIH Insurance Ltd was observed as the beginning of the reflection into external auditors role. HIH is one of Australias biggest insurers, comprising several separate government-licensed insurance companies, including HIH Casualty General Insurance Ltd, FAI General Insurance Ltd, CIC Insurance Ltd and World Marine General Insurances Ltd. On 15 March 2001, HIH went into provisional liquidation with losses of A$ 800 million (Peursem, Zhou, Flood Buttimore, 2007). HIH is one of the largest corporate collapses in Australian history. Similar issues arise as in the Enron case. HIH is claimed to mislead investors by providing incorrect financial reports to the market and HIHs auditor, Arthur Andersen, may have played a part in its collapse. Andersen conducted the external audits for HIH from 1971 until its collapse in 2001. Their contribution to the failure of HIH is considered in the following sections: Audit Practices As part of audit process, auditors will conduct a risk assessment to determine the structure and plan of the audit. Andersen assessed the risk of HIH and deemed it a maximum risk client, however, the engagement team of Andersen had not prepared the risk management plan and therefore the senior management team at Anderson did not review and approve the plan (Peursem, Zhou, Flood Buttimore, 2007). At the end, the auditor simply drew the wrong conclusions. Andersen signed off HIHs annual report for the 30th June 2000 and stated that it was a going concern with net assets of $939 million. Nine months later, HIH collapsed with debts of $5.3 billion (Peursem, Zhou, Flood Buttimore, 2007). Andersen used HIH management reports and forecasts and did not obtain sufficient evidence to get the conclusions they did. The liquidator could not find the documentation on the reasons for considering HIH as a going concern. This implies that Anderson failed to produce sufficient working papers to prove that the audit actually is conducted. Auditor Independence Andersen had a close relationship with HIH. By the time of liquidation, three former Anderson partners who had conducted HIH financial audit work held positions on the HIH board of directors. This obvious lack of independence between the board of directors and the auditors indicated that the best interests of HIH may have not always be a priority. Andersons failure in producing adequate working papers or in obtaining adequate evidence to support their findings have serious concerns on the quality of the audit they did. A significant independence issue is also reflected in the form of Andersons payment to HIH Chairman, Geoffrey Cohen for consultancy fees. These fees totaled $190,887 in nine years and included the use of Andersons office and secretary. These fees were not disclosed to the remaining board members in the annual general meetings (Peursem, Zhou, Flood Buttimore, 2007). The close and complicated financial relationship between the auditors and HIH chairman raise further questions in this case. Finally, the threat to auditor independence is that Andersen provided both audit and non-audit services to HIH. It raises a question on how can an auditor provide an independent opinion on the financial statements when he may play a role in guiding the preparation of the statements? The Royal Commission in Australia, which investigates the collapse of HIH, has found that the largest corporate collapse in Australia was not due to fraud but the result of attempting to cover the cracks on the overpriced acquisition. Andersons role in it appeared to be substantial. Modern Approach to External Auditors Role in Corporate Governance External auditors now have to take a much stricter approach to their clients (Bourne, 1995). There is an increasing view to support that external auditors should take on a more proactive role (Baxt, 1970). The Companies Act has set the stipulation on appointment, eligibility, qualification, disqualification and removal of external auditors (Davies Prentice, 2003). The intention is to ensure that auditors are able to carry out audit in an impersonal, objective and professional way. It is also to ensure that auditors are independent of the company. The reason for such emphasis is to ensure the external auditors are not in a position of conflict of interests. When there is conflict of interest, disclosure must be made to shareholders and stakeholders. Alternatively, there should be prohibition to the provision of non-audit services to the company where they act as auditors. To ensure auditors are truly independent and not in a conflict of interest, auditors should be rotated every year. Thereafter there should be a gap of five years before the same auditors are appointed by the company. Conclusion External auditors have an essential role in corporate governance through their involvement and their examination of financial statements. The external auditors role in corporate governance is a fundamental complement to achieve the desired objective of corporate governance. Therefore, the duties and obligations of external auditors must be expanded for the rights and interests of shareholders and stakeholders. There must be a modern approach to the auditors role in the corporate governance framework.

Essay --

Harriet Beecher Stowe was born Harriet Beecher in Litchfield, Connecticut on June 14, 1911 to Lyman Beecher and Roxanna Foote. She was one of eleven children, to be precise the sixth child, though not all of her siblings were of the same mother. In 1915, at the age of four, Harriet lost her mother due to an illness, the trauma of the loss stayed with her and even influenced her later writings. After the loss she was taken by her Aunt Harriet Foote to her Grandmother's home in Nut Plains. She stayed there for a few months during the winter of that year where she already started to display a literary mind with developing the ability to read and memorize whole passages from the Bible. Her father, a reverend and conservative abolitionist, soon remarried to Harriet Porter when Harriet was six years old. She described her stepmother as a fair, delicate looking creature that was also as she described "of a type noble but severe, naturally hard, correct, exact and exacting, with intense nat ural and moral ideality" (Stowe, p. 13). Her stepmother although kind, was a little flustered by inheriting eight new children and maintained some distance from them, focusing more on her own children, Harriet's half-siblings. Once Harriet was of age to attend school she started going to Litchfield Academy and soon was one of the top students. Always trying to impress her father she would later tell others that the proudest moment in her life occurred when she was twelve and her father visited the school, it was there that he heard an essay which he found exemplary. He inquired about which student had written it and when told that it was his own daughter's he praised her highly. (Stowe, p. 14) Soon after Harriet's eldest sister Charlotte, her senior ... ... to the opposition and view of the book for being overly dramatic and exaggerated. (Weinstein, p. 17) Her name remained tarnished even into the Civil Rights movement in the 1960s when it was proclaimed by one writer, James Baldwin, that the story had helped ingrain racism into the white American culture. Not until the 1970s did the name Harriet Beecher Stowe regain positive recognition with the rise of the feminist movement. These second wave feminists worked to get the book into schools and to give recognition to positive female role models throughout American history. Her writings on slavery and their impact on the United States during its tumultuous time of deciding on its moral stance on slavery was great and has been immortalized in our history as Harriet Beecher Stowe's legacy has survived even into the 21st century, being taught in schools across the country.